A BEGINNER’S GUIDE TO ARTICLE 9.1 OF THE PARIS AGREEMENT

When you open the Paris Agreement and read Article 9.1, you’ll find a seemingly simple sentence with monumental implications. It reads: “Developed country Parties shall provide financial resources to assist developing country Parties with respect to both mitigation and adaptation in continuation of their existing obligations under the Convention.” But don’t let its brevity fool you. That “shall provide” is the foundation of the global climate finance architecture. For Africa and the developing world, Article 9.1 is a lynchpin of fairness, feasibility and trust in climate action. Here’s what it is, what it says, and why it is vital, especially when climate justice is on the line. 

1: IN THE BEGINNING… 

Article 9 of the Paris Agreement focuses on climate finance. It sits within a treaty whose raison d’être is to accelerate global efforts on mitigation, adaptation and cooperation. But the inclusion of Article 9.1 signals something important: developed countries must help finance developing countries’ climate action. That obligation is grounded in earlier arrangements under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and now elevated into the Paris framework. Legal analyses stress three features of Article 9.1. First, the use of the imperative “shall” rather than “may” or “should” reflects a binding commitment from developed-country Parties. Second, the subject is “developed country Parties” (plural). That indicates a collective obligation, rather than only a vague moral exhortation. Third, the phrase “in continuation of their existing obligations under the Convention” links back to earlier commitments under Articles 4.3 and 4.4 of the UNFCCC. In short: Article 9.1 tells developed countries they must provide financial support to developing countries for both mitigation (reducing emissions) and adaptation (managing impacts). 

2: BREAKING DOWN THE GLOBAL PROMISE  

Let’s unpack the key pieces of Article 9.1: 

• “Developed country Parties”: This identifies the group responsible for providing the finance. The Paris Agreement intentionally moves away from rigid Annexes of the UNFCCC but retains the notion that those with greater responsibility and capability must contribute. 

• “Shall provide financial resources”: The verb “shall” is critical. It signals obligation; “financial resources” means not just advice or support, but actual funds. 

• “To assist developing country Parties”: The financing is not optional; it is directed at developing countries, acknowledging their vulnerabilities and historic emissions gap. 

• “With respect to both mitigation and adaptation”: Reducing emissions and building resilience matter; and finance cannot neglect adaptation. 

• “In continuation of their existing obligations under the Convention”: This links the Paris finance obligation with the earlier UNFCCC commitments, not creating a completely new obligation, but embedding the finance duty into the new regime.  

In essence, Article 9.1 is a global promise: developed nations will support developing nations with money for climate action.  

3: WHY IT MATTERS FOR AFRICA AND THE DEVELOPING WORLD 

For African countries, Article 9.1 is central to three interlinked themes: climate justice, financial capacity and development sovereignty. Let’s explain them in detail: 

1. Climate justice. African nations contributed very little to historical greenhouse-gas accumulation, yet they bear heavy burdens of climate impacts. Holding developed countries to Article 9.1 is one way of saying: you caused the problem, you must help fix it. It affirms the principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC) encoded in the UNFCCC. When Article 9.1 declares that “developed country Parties shall provide financial resources …”, it anchors justice in legal obligation rather than goodwill. 

2. Financial capacity and debt burden. Many African governments struggle with thin fiscal space, high debt servicing, and competing development priorities. Climate action, especially adaptation, is expensive and often non-profitable in the short term. Without finance under Article 9.1, African countries risk being asked to deliver big mitigation and adaptation goals without the means. Worse, if support comes mainly in the form of loans or commercial instruments, the result may be debt for climate action, which undermines development. Strengthening Article 9.1 means insisting on finance that is predictable, grant-based, concessional and aligned with country needs. 

3. Development sovereignty and policy space. Many African nations are building industrialisation strategies, access to energy, urbanisation and jobs at the same time as confronting climate change. They require finance flows that respect their development pathways, not conditionalities that subordinate national plans to external priorities. Article 9.1, when implemented robustly, enables finance that supports national decision-making rather than undermines it. It acts as a guardrail ensuring that climate finance doesn’t sideline development. 

4: QUANTUM VS QUALITY 

The language of Article 9.1 (“shall provide financial resources”) implies public finance flows, ideally grants or highly concessional support. Yet real-world climate finance often arrives as loans from multilateral development banks or private-sector programmes. For Africa, this is a major concern: if climate finance means more debt, we face a trap as support for climate action becomes a burden rather than an enabler. Article 9.1 must thus be read not only in terms of quantum (how much money) but quality (what form). The “existing obligations under the Convention” it references include adequacy and predictability of finance flows, and the importance of burden-sharing among developed countries. Europe and other donor nations frequently emphasise “mobilised private finance”, “blended finance” and “leveraging the private sector”. While these tools have utility, they cannot fulfil the full meaning of Article 9.1 if they leave developing countries with commercial risk or debt exposure. Indeed, advocates argue that unless public-grant finance increases substantially, the disparity between ambition (mitigation, adaptation) and capacity (finance, technology) will widen. Article 9.1 is the legal anchor to press for public money and not simply “mobilised” money. 

5: WHAT IMPLEMENTATION HAS LOOKED LIKE, AND WHAT’S STILL MISSING 

Since the Paris Agreement’s adoption in 2015, there has been progress, yet serious gaps remain. Under Article 9.5, developed countries commit to provide information on finance provided and mobilised. However, the amount of adaptation finance remains far below the need, allocation often skews toward mitigation, and predictability is weak. For Africa, this means the implementation gap of Article 9.1 is tangible. Many projects struggle for financing or are financed in ways that increase future burdens, the promise of predictable flows remains unmet, and the transformation of national adaptation plans into full funding remains slow. The legal commentary is clear: Article 9.1 creates a legally binding obligation for developed country Parties, though some debate whether only Annex II parties or all developed Parties are covered. The stronger interpretation is that all developed country Parties carry the obligation under 9.1, not just those listed previously under Annex II. This matters for negotiating accountability. Still, the Paris Agreement does not specify a fixed number under Article 9.1 for how much must be provided. That has been left to subsequent decisions and mechanisms, such as the collective goal of US$100 billion annually under the UNFCCC, but Article 9.1 remains the cornerstone. 

6: WHY THIS NEEDS TO BE FRONT AND CENTRE AT COP30 

Africa and other developing regions cannot afford to relegate Article 9.1 to fine print or side discussions. Here are some of the core reasons: 

1. Scaling adaptation and vulnerability relief. As adaptation costs escalate, especially in Africa, robust finance flows under Article 9.1 are the lifeline. Tracking whether developed countries are meeting their “shall provide” duty becomes essential. 

2. Enabling mitigation ambition. Many developing countries want to raise mitigation ambition, but they cannot do so without corresponding means. Adequate finance means that countries can invest in renewable energy, infrastructure, and capacity without compromising poverty eradication or development priorities. 

3. Strengthening trust in the system. For the global climate regime to work, developing countries must trust that when they raise ambition, support will follow. Article 9.1 is one of the credible links between ambition and action. If it remains unimplemented, trust erodes. 

4. Addressing debt and inequalities. Climate finance that arrives as loans or commercial instruments undermines development. Africa must ensure that Article 9.1 is interpreted and operationalised to prioritise grant-based and concessional finance, thereby protecting development sovereignty and preventing a new debt burden. 

5. Legal and moral muscle. While many provisions in the Paris Agreement are aspirational or procedural, Article 9.1 stands out for its binding language. Using it effectively means using a legal lever for equity, not simply a political argument. 

7: WHAT AFRICA CAN DO: MOBILISE, MONITOR, AND MAKE IT MATTER 

For African countries and negotiators, turning Article 9.1 from rhetorical promise into practical instrument requires three strategic moves: 

1. Mobilise the argument. Use Article 9.1 as litmus test in negotiations. When finance appears as loans, or when mitigation is funded while adaptation languishes, point to Article 9.1’s “shall provide” and the obligations it carries. 

2. Monitor and demand transparency. Insist on disaggregation of financial flows (grants vs loans; adaptation vs mitigation; public vs private) and push for predictable, accessible, long-term funding aligned to national needs. 

3. Shape delivery architecture. Work to institutionalise mechanisms under the UNFCCC and Paris framework that align with Article 9.1: financing windows prioritising vulnerable countries, multi-year commitments, grant-based funds, and accountability systems. 

By doing so, Africa can ensure that Article 9.1 supports real world change, enabling adaptation, building resilience, and securing development rather than becoming a clause that sits unread on a shelf of agreements.